COGNITIVE-BEHAVIOR THERAPY

Cognitive-Behavior Therapy

Cognitive-Behavior Therapy

Cognitive Therapy

Standard Beckian cognitive-behavior therapy (CBT), known as cognitive therapy (CT), is based on the apparent cognitive model that links cognitions, emotions, and behaviors such that cognitions shape behaviors and emotions, and unrealistic cognitions can lead to inappropriate emotions and behaviors (Beck, 1987). CT aims to reduce test anxiety by identifying and restructuring partial or maladaptive cognitions, such as those about the inevitability and complex consequences of failure. In addition, CT programs for education anxiety typically include relaxation techniques, such as deep breathing and guided imagery. Several studies have indicated that interventions based on CT principles cause a decrease in test anxiety. However, meta-analyses suggest that the full CT set for research anxiety was no better (Hembree, 1988) or was less effective (Ergene, 2003) than behavioral-only treatments. Therefore it is not clear whether the cognitive components of CT are specifically useful.

Moreover, almost none of the studies examining CT principles have used measurements that can capture changes in real-world performance. Many studies examining CT's effects on test anxiety rely on analogue measures of performance, such as tests of general reasoning, speed tests with numbers, or problem-solving tasks; none of these studies revealed benefits to CT over behavioral-only (e.g., modeling, exposure) or control treatment conditions on performance measures. Furthermore, these tasks may not be reflective of real-world performance on examinations. Although Dendato and Diener (1986) did report that a lightening- or cognitive-therapy condition improved examination performance, utilization of cognitive coping statements have been associated with worse performance. CT has shown limited, if any, positive effects on real-world test performance, arguably the most important issue variable.

The CT intervention borrowed heavily from Beck, Emery, and Greenberg's (1985) kind of CT for anxiety disorders and phobias. The intervention began by a discussion of treatment goals, which were the reduction of test anxiety, including anticipatory, studying, and test-taking anxiety. We then introduced the cognitive model to the participants and elaborated the model as an explanation for test anxiety. In case of test anxiety, the presentation of a test evokes anxious thoughts (“I'm going to fail”) and physical sensations (e.g., palms sweating, heart racing, and psychomotor agitation) that in turn reinforce an explanation of the test as threatening.

Identification and Restructuring of Automatic Thoughts

We followed the discussion of the cognitive model with strategies for recognizing, recording, evaluating, and restructuring automatic thoughts, a core feature of the cognitive model. Three strategies were provided for identifying and correcting inaccurate cognitions: eliciting thoughts that may be accepted for normal anxious individuals (to help participants identify specific thoughts to the fear they may cause), examining the evidence for (and against) the accuracy and usefulness of thoughts, and identifying the type of cognitive distortion reflected in the thoughts (e.g., overgeneralization, polarized thinking, and catastrophizing). Participants were introduced to a thought record, with examples of common negative thoughts and physical sensations and ways to focus attention away from them. Participants were encouraged to employ and research thought records while anticipating and studying for exams.

Relaxation Strategies

Participants were also taught breathing- and muscular based mitigation strategies that could be utilized both before and during an exam. This practice was provided with the argument that one cannot be simultaneously relaxed and eager. Participants were instructed to take a few deep breaths when they noticed anxious ...