DYSFUNCTIONAL LEADERSHIP: A REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Dysfunctional Leadership: A Review of Literature



Dysfunctional Leadership: A Review of Literature

Introduction

A 2003 cartoon in the International Herald Tribune shows two fighting children being pulled apart by their mother. One child points at the other, protesting “She called me a CEO first!” Until recently, when leadership scandals such as those at Tyco, Enron, and WorldCom had begun to reveal leadership's underbelly, American business leadership was viewed as an essentially benign activity, with leaders working for the good of the organization and all of its stakeholders (Kets, 1993). Most studies of leadership have emphasized its positive, transforming aspects, assigning an almost moral dimension to the task—one that involves a calling to a higher plane. But such perceptions, laudable though they may be, ignore leadership's shadow side, that part of the leadership equation which thrives on the power that comes with the role. This “Darth Vader” aspect of the role, which grows out of personality traits such as self-aggrandizement and entitlement, thrives on narcissism, self-deceit, and the abuse of power.

Dysfunctional Leadership: A Review of Literature

In the psychopathology of leadership, the combination of neurotic personality and personal power can—and almost inevitably does—create social and business disasters. Despite the potency of this shadow side, many leaders are unwilling to face it. They hesitate to look inside themselves, and when they do, they refuse to acknowledge their weaknesses; they are unwilling to face up to how their defensive structures and character traits can negatively affect their organizations (Kets, 1993). They are all too quick to deny that the pressures that come with leadership can contribute to dysfunctional behavior and decisions. The psychological pressures of leadership can be formidable, however, contributing to dysfunctional behavior to the detriment of both leader and organization. Among such pressures are (Winnicott, 1975):

* The loneliness of command. Once a man or woman reaches a top position in an organization, stress and frustration often develop as old relationships and support networks change and previous colleagues become distant.

* Addiction to power. The fear of losing what has been so difficult to gain—a top leadership position—sometimes motivates people to engage in malevolent acts.

* Fear of envy. Some people find being the object of envy very disturbing. That fear can reach the point where dysfunctional self-destructive behavior “snatches defeat out of the jaws of victory” (Winnicott, 1975).

* The experience of “What now?” After achieving a lifetime's ambition, leaders sometimes suffer from a sense of depression, feeling that they have little left to strive for.

All these psychological pressures may cause stress, anxiety, and/or depression, which may in their turn provoke irresponsible and irrational behaviors that affect an organization's culture and decision-making patterns. But what lies behind them? Many of the pressures leaders experience derive from the ways they have learned to cope with the vicissitudes of narcissism.

Human development is shaped, in part, by responding to frustration. Before birth, human beings are, in effect, on automatic pilot: One's needs are met immediately and automatically. This situation changes the moment a baby makes its ...