Postpartum Depression

Postpartum Depression

Postpartum Depression

Introduction

Mothers with postpartum depression (PPD) commonly have thoughts of harming their children, exhibit fewer positive emotions and more negative emotions towards them, are less responsive and less sensitive to infant cues, less emotionally available, have a less successful maternal role attainment, and have infants that are less securely attached (Beck, 1995; Beck, 1996b; Cohn, Campbell, Matias & Hopkins, 1990; Cohn, Campbell & Ross, 1991; Field & et al., 1985; Fowles, 1996; Hoffman & Drotar, 1991; Jennings, Ross, Popper & Elmore, in press; Murray, 1991; Murray & Cooper, 1996). Although most researchers view PPD as a disorder, evolutionary theorists frequently have argued that there are circumstances when it would in the mother's fitness interest to reduce or eliminate her investment in her offspring, for example, when there is insufficient social support to raise the infant, or when the infant has low viability (Clutton-Brock, 1991; Daly & Wilson, 1984; Daly & Wilson, 1988; Hrdy, 1979; Hrdy, 1992; Trivers, 1974).

PPD is a depressive episode with onset occurring one month postpartum (APA, 1994).1 Depressive episodes are characterized by a number of symptoms including depressed or sad affect, marked loss of interest in virtually all activities, significant weight loss or gain, insomnia or hypersonic, psychomotor agitation or retardation, fatigue or loss of energy, feelings of worthlessness or guilt, diminished ability to think, and recurrent thoughts of death (APA, 1994). Diagnosis of a DSM IV foremost depressive episode needs that five of these symptoms present throughout a two-week period, and that at smallest one of the symptoms is either dejected or sad feeling, or a markedly weakened interest or delight in all or nearly all activities.

Three correlates of PPD are consistently discovered by investigators: marriage difficulties and need of communal support, particularly the father's (table 1), infant difficulties, encompassing pregnancy and delivery difficulties (table 2), and a former history of despondency or other emotional problems (Atkinson & Rickel, 1984; Cutrona & Troutman, 1986; Gotlib et al., 1991; Graff, Dyck & Schallow, 1991; Logsdon, McBride & Birkimer, 1994; O'Hara et al., 1984; O'Hara, Rehm & Campbell, 1983; Whiffen, 1988; Whiffen & Gotlib, 1993). This paper will suggest three associated adaptive functions for PPD that are reliable with the anticipations of evolutionary theorists and the first two correlates noted above. First, negative affect—i.e., miserable or dejected mood—should be associated with communal attenuating factors that were reproductively costly in ancestral environments (e.g., need of communal support or infant problems). This “psychological pain” hypothesis (Alexander, 1986; Nesse, 1991; Nesse & Williams, 1995; Thornhill & Thornhill, 1990; Thornhill & Thornhill, 1989; Tooby & Cosmides, 1990) is strongly supported by existing evidence. Second, mothers will take actions to reduce their grades of psychological agony, thereby reducing their reproductive costs. This hypothesis is furthermore well sustained by living evidence.

What is Postpartum Depression?

Postpartum despondency is simply the despondency conveyed about by pregnancy. It may be identified throughout or after a mother gives birth to her child. The most common cause of postpartum depression is hormonal changes, but then ...