RESEARCH ON PHYSICALLY DISABLED TEENAGERS

Research on physically disabled teenagers

Research on physically disabled teenagers

Introduction

Previous research has demonstrated that physical illness or disabilities are associated with psychosocial problems (e.g. Cadman et al., 1987, p805). These psychosocial problems are often concentrated around lack of self-esteem, lack of motivation for challenging and independent tasks, and learned helplessness (Kunnen, 1992, 1993, p113). Another relevant concept here is “selfefficacy” (Bandura, 1977, p191), which is defined as the conviction that someone can successfully execute the behavior required to produce the desired outcomes.

If someone seriously doubts her or his capability to perform the required activities, little energy and time will be spend in trying to reach the goal. Negative expectations of oneself and the future are positively correlated with depression and negatively correlated with self-esteem (Kazdin et al., 1986). Cadman et al. (1987, p805) have demonstrated that physically disabled children have a more than doubled risk for psychosocial problems, and are at substantially higher risk for psychiatric problems like depression than their non-handicapped peers. Kunnen (1992, 1993, p113) has suggested that interventions for physically disabled children should be directed at improving the perceived control over own performances (as the opposite of learned helplessness) and motivation to work independently. School is a social institution that can support the mastering of these skills. It influences the child's affective development (Oatley and Nundy, 1998, pp. 257), for instance, by the kind of instruction that is used in an educational setting. According to Boekaerts (1996), indirect forms of instruction foster the ability to motivate oneself, to take initiative, to be persistent, to take responsibility for learning, and to be able to work independently or in groups. In indirect instruction, the learning process is active, self-organized and self-controlled. Through a process of learning, using problem-solving skills, and attaining perceived control, people develop positive beliefs about themselves and their future (Palmer and Wehmeyer, 1998, p128).

Promoting this process could be favorable for physically handicapped children. Problem-based learning (PBL) is an instructional method, with a big emphasis on self-regulated learning (Norman and Schmidt, 1992; Zimmerman and Lebeau, 2000, p557). Small groups of students discuss problem descriptions, which are constructed by their teacher. The task of the student group is to discuss these problems, based on their prior knowledge. During the initial discussion dilemmas will arise and questions will come up that will direct subsequent individual self-directed learning. After a period of self-study, students come back in the group and discuss the problem once again. The newly acquired knowledge is actively applied and students check whether the problems can be solved. Afterwards a new cycle begins and students start working on a new problem. Research has shown that PBL increases confidence and motivation of students (Agbor et al., 2000), promotes greater acquisition of psychosocial knowledge, enhances interpersonal skills, and encourages students to become engaged and self-directed learners (Block, 1996). Furthermore, PBL promotes critical thinking and a problem-solving way of working (Birgegard and Lindquist, 1998; but see Norman and Schmidt, 1992, ...