Cross-Cultural Comparison of Racial Micro aggression in College Science Classrooms and Elsewhere in Higher Education in the US and UK

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Table of Contents

LITERATURE REVIEW1

Background1

Educational Reflection4

Categories of Racial Micro Aggression6

Ethical Dilemma's7

Impact of Racial Micro Aggression on Minority Science Students8

Coping with Race-Based Stress11

Passive Coping12

Spiritual Coping13

Culture Specific Responses to Race-Related Stress14

Religious Problem-Solving15

Reforms16

Science Teacher Education Reform Teacher Education Reform16

REFERENCES19

LITERATURE REVIEW

Background

Racism is a persistent and constant problem in the United States that negatively influences individuals of color by inhibiting their desirable growth and functioning. Racism is a persistent and constant problem in the United States that negatively influences individuals of color by inhibiting their desirable growth and functioning. Throughout, centuries, people have been tormented and killed for their race, ethnicity, and beliefs. As Montagu noted, race is a contemporary myth that contributed to theories such as the German Nazi, which led to the death of millions of Jews, as well as numerous wars in Europe, including wars in Cyprus, Macedonia, and Kosovo. Race also contributed to genocide in Armenia, Rwanda, and Bosnia. Race is considered a relatively new concept that was introduced mainly by northern Europeans. Prior to the travel explorations of Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460), people's perception of race was very limited (Brace, 1964). Northern Europeans were isolated, which contributed to limited exposure to other people who were physically and culturally different. However, Southern Europeans interacted with Middle Easterners, Asians, and Africans, who exposed them to great diversities of physical characteristics and cultural differences (Constantine, 2007).

During the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries, when Europeans began exploring the globe, they came across novel people who made them wonder if they 'were human, beast or some other hitherto undiscovered, intermediate being. However, in the new-fangled World, the idea of racism emerged when Europeans believed they were entitled to American Indian land (Katz, 1990). Africans were brought into America to serve as slaves, and by then White supremacy became a way of life. Even though the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution were signed in 1776, it took 80 years and a civil war to end slavery. In 1969 legal segregation was eliminated; however, to this day there is still societal and institutional segregation. Based on the aforementioned, belief in supremacy of White Americans developed, allowing systemic racism to manifest in everyday life. A considerable number of White Americans recognize they not only stereotype people of color but also hold negative views against them that result in negative behavior towards them. Moreover, in the context of United States of America the definition of racism has been mainly restricted to White Americans. As Sue stated, "in the United States, it is the White people who dominate and control the institutions and social policies that create and enforce 'American' cultural values and norms.

In contrast to the blatant racism of the past, present day racism frequently is more subtle or subliminal in nature. Experts today tends to render racism as modem racism, symbolic racism, and aversive racism. Thus, modem racism can be defined as a subtle form of prejudice in which ...