Utilitarianism

The principle of utility - or Utilitarianism - is a moral test for the rightness of actions, based on how much pleasure or  pain they produce. The most well-known (and developed) versions of it are found in the work of Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). However, the 'principle of utility' is also found in the work of David Hume (1711-1776), and can trace its origins back to Epicurus (341-270 BCE).

Utilitarianism is a Consequentialist theory of ethics. Consequentialist theories judge the rightness (or wrongness) of an action, by what occurs as a result of doing something. (Singer 2010)

Bentham and Mill wanted to find a secure, irrefutable and objective basis for morality. They were deeply suspicious of moral theories which did not do this, especially when it seemed they were arbitrary and subjective (as they felt faith-based moralities were). Being anti-establishment, anti-monarchist, anti-imperialist meant they also wanted a more democratic approach to ethics and law-making. Therefore, judging actions to be right or wrong on the basis of their effects, seemed to allow Bentham and Mill (and other Utilitarians) to objectify morality. In other words, they could actually see that doing x would lead to y outcome, rather than be told that this or that might or could happen.

Utilitarianism is often contrasted with Deontological ethics. These consider an act to be good when someone is doing what they ought to do (one's duty), and bad when not doing this. Deontologists are only interested in the act, and not whether doing something leads to good or bad consequences.

In, Fragment of Government (1776) and An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789), Bentham set about attacking English law as that which had no logical or scientific foundation. In other words, there was no objective basis for English law, and as such morality rested on a multiplicity of foundations (e.g. the Bible, tradition, conscience etc.). This meant that the law/morality, was nothing more than a set of subjective truth-claims, with no objective basis. To correct this, Bentham wanted to introduce a means (or criteria) for validating and securing ethical behaviour, and one which could also serve as the basis for a system of law and government. He also wanted a more democratic form of government, as he felt that handing power to rule over to others led to an attitude of servitude and dependency amongst the common people, and was open to abuse by those in power (who could use their position to promote their own ideals). (Singer 2009)

Nature has placed mankind under two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. (Bentham J., Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation) Bentham began An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation by defining human nature as something fundamentally driven by the pleasure/pain principle. He believed that from observing the way people operate in the world, it could be reasonably demonstrated that humans naturally seek pleasure, and naturally seek to avoid pain. Therefore, he believed that morality (and the laws derived from this), could ...